語用學禮貌原則研究論文

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【Abstract】Euphemism,cosmeticwords,isnotonlyalingualphenomenon,butalsoaculturalandsocialphenomenon.Itislikeamirror,reflectingthevalues,aestheticconceptionsandmoralconceptsinsomeextent.Euphemismplaysanimportantpartinsocialcommunication.Itislikelubethatavoidshurtingtheotherparty’sfeeling.Itoilsthehumanrelationshipincommunicationandhelpstosavefaceofcommunicators.Ifpeoplemakefulluseofeuphemism,itcanaccelerateandfacilitatehumancommunication.Thispaperelaboratesonthefeaturesandsocialfunctionsofeuphemism.AnditfocusesontherelationshipsbetweenitspolitefunctionsandPolitenessPrinciple.ThisthesisiscomposedofsixpartswithChapterFourandFiveasitscore:Thefirstchapterfocusesontheoriginanddefinitionsofeuphemism.Thesecondchapterdiscussesthefeaturesofeuphemisminmanyways.Thethirdchaptertalksaboutthesocialfunctionsofeuphemismfromtheangleofpragmatics.Thefourthchapterformsthebasisofthewholeresearchbyconnectingeuphemismwithpolitenessandface-savingtheory.ThefifthchaptercentersoneuphemismandPolitenessPrinciple.Thelastchapterconcludesthewholethesis.AppropriateuseofEnglisheuphemismcancontributealottosuccessfulmessageexchange.

【KeyWords】euphemism;socialfunctions;PolitenessPrinciple;facewant

【摘要】委婉語是一種語言現象，一種文化現象，更是一種社會現象，在一定程度上，它反映了社會的價值觀，審美觀和美德觀。委婉語在社會交際中發揮著重要作用。日常的約定俗成的委婉語能起潤滑劑的作用，通過委婉語，可以避免語言過于直露而給對方造成傷害。它是語言使用中人們用來協調人際關系的有效潤滑劑，是保全交際各方面子的重要手段。很多中外學者曾從不同的角度對英語委婉語進行了長期的研究并取得了可喜的成果。本文主要研討了委婉語的特點，社會功用，并從語用學的角度分析了委婉語的社會功用，禮貌原則及面子問題。本文分為六個部分。第四和第五章是文章的重點。第一章主要探討了委婉語的定義及起源。第二章從很多方面概括了委婉語的特點。第三章從語用的角度分析了委婉語的社會功用。第四章把委婉語與禮貌，面子保全論聯系在一起，是本文的核心。第五章側重于委婉語貌與禮貌原則的關系。本文的實踐意義在于其分析結論有助于保證信息傳遞的順利進行并促進人們的日常交流。

【關鍵詞】委婉語；社會功用；禮貌原則；面子

1.Introduction

Thereisahumor:OnceaParistouristresidedinUK.Alandladytoldhimsadlythat,“Myhusbandhasjustpassedtotheotherside.”Theguestlookedfromthefenceofthegardenbutsawnoone,feelingconfused.Thelandladyexplained:“Imeanhe’skickedthebucket.”Theguestcomfortedherthat:“Ihopehisfootwillbebettersoon.”Thelandladyfeltunintelligiblyandsaid:“No,hewasn’there,hesnuffedit…youknow.”Theguestwonderedandsaid:“Butyou’vegotelectricityhere.”

Thereasonswhytheguestdidn’tanswerproperlyarethathedidn’trealizethatthelandladyusedeuphemism,nordidheunderstandthe“conversationalimplicature”ofeuphemism.Whatthelandladywantedtosayisthatherhusbanddied.

ThewordeuphemismcomesfromtheGreekword“euphemos”,meaning"auspicious/good/fortunatespeech"whichinturnisderivedfromtheGreekroot---wordseu,"good/well"+pheme,"speech/speaking".Theeuphemewasoriginallyawordorphraseusedinplaceofareligiouswordorphrasethatshouldnotbespokenaloud(Suchastaboo).Theprimaryexamplesoftaboowordsrequiringtheuseofaeuphemismaretheunspeakablenamesforadeity,suchasPersephone,Hecate,NemesisorYahweh.Byspeakingonlywordsfavorabletothegodsorspirits,thespeakerattemptedtoproducegoodfortunebyremainingingoodfavorwiththem.

“EuphemismisdefinedintheNewEditionoftheOxfordConciseDictionary(1976)as‘Substitutionofmildorvagueorroundaboutexpressionforharshordirectone;expressionthussubstituted.’INWebster’sNewCollegiateDictionary(1973)thedefinitionreads,‘Substitutionofanagreeableorinoffensiveexpressionforonethatmayoffendorsuggestsomethingunpleasant.’”[1]

EuphemismisanimportantrhetoricalmeansinEnglish.Itplaysanimportantroleinpeople’sdailycommunication.Itisnotonlyaculturalphenomenon,butalsoasocialphenomenon.Itjustlikesamirror,whichreflectssomesocialandpsychologicalphenomena.

2.Featuresofeuphemism

2.1Indirectandimplicit

Themostimportantcharacterofeuphemismisindirectandimplicit.Euphemismalwaysgivespeoplehintsinaroundaboutway.Wecaninferthedeepermeaningandintentionfromthecontext.Forexample,whensomeoneisill,wealwayssayheisundertheweather.Ifsomeoneismad,wesayheissoftinmind.

2.2Universality

Universalityissomethingthatiswell-knownandacceptedbyallofthepeople.Thougheuphemismisindirectanditdoesn’tcomestraighttothepoint,peoplecaneasilyinferitsdeeperimplication.Sometaboosconnectedwithsex,death,orbodyfunctionsarereplacedbyeuphemisms.Andthepublichasacceptedthiskindofuse.Forexample,whenwerefertodeath,weseldomsay“die”.Weusetheexpression“passaway”.

2.3Thefeatureoftimes

Thechangesoflanguagedependontheneedandchangesofthesociety.Andeuphemismundergoesaprocessofmetabolism.Itbearsamarkedbrandoftimes.

Forexample,“‘Sheispregnant’hasmanydifferenteuphemisticexpressionsindifferenteras.

(1)Shehascanceledallhersocialengagements.(1856)

(2)Sheisinaninterestingcondition.(1880)

(3)Sheisinadelicatecondition.(1895)

(4)Sheisknittinglittlebootees.(1910)

(5)Sheisinafamilyway.(1920)

(6)Sheisexpecting.(1935)

(7)Sheispregnant.(1956)”[2]

Butafter1960s,euphemismsofpregnantdevelopslowlybecauseinmoderntimes,peoplearenotsoimplicit.Theyalwaysmentionthingsdirectly.Andnow,thephenomenonofpregnantisacheerfulthing.Peoplewillnotbeshywhenmentioningit.

“Theword‘gay’,atfirst,itmeanshappyandhomosexuality.Butaseuphemismdevelops,theword‘gay’onlyremindsusthemeaningofhomosexuality.Thus,peopledon’tusetheexpression‘Weareyoungandgay.’”[3]

2.4Regionalfeature

Ineuphemism,therearesomeregionaldifferences.AnAustralianwomanmarriedtoanAmericanman.TheyspenttheirhoneymooninAmerica.Andoneday,thecoupleintendedtogotoapartytogether.Butthebridegroomcouldn’tfindasuitablefulldress.Thebridetookoutabirthdaysuitthatshegavehimasapresentfewdaysagoandsaid:“Whynotwearyourbirthdaysuit?”However,thewholefamilyallastonishedbecauseinAmericanEnglish,“inone’sbirthdaysuit”[4]istheeuphemisticexpressionof“naked”.Sothisembarrassingsituationresultedfromtheregionaldifferencesineuphemism.

Therearetwocausesofregionaldifferences.

Firstisaregionalculturaldifference.Indifferentregions,theculturetherewilleffectthedevelopmentofeuphemism.Forexample,“gotow.c.”.IntheBalliolcollegeofOxfordUniversity,studentscall“‘gototoilet’as‘tovisitLadyPeriam’”[5]becausethetoiletsofthatcollegewerebuiltonthelanddonatedbyLadyPeriam.Ofcourse,Americanswillnotagreewiththisexpression.

“Secondisthedifferenceofgeographicenvironment.Forexample,inseaside,deathwouldbeconnectedwithseaandtide.Theymayuse‘gowiththetide’toexpressdie.Onthecontrary,inAmericanwestmountainareas,theeuphemismfordieis‘(gone)overtherange’or‘tocrosstheGreatDivide’.Thesearethetypicalregionaleuphemisms.”[6]

2.5Diversityoflingualregion

Someonethinksthatonlyupperandmiddleclassuseeuphemism.Butthisconclusionistooabsolute.Wecananalyzethisinthreeaspects.

2.5.1Differencesofgenderorage

“Astudyshowsthatfemaleusemoreeuphemismsthanmaledo.ThereisasayinginEnglish:‘horsesweat;menperspire;youngladiesglow.’(Brock,1973:73)Womenuseobscurewordtoexpresstheactionofsweat.Andthedifferenceofgenderandageusuallyinfluencethechoiceofthesynonymsofeuphemism.Forinstance,thereareavarietyofexpressionsabout‘gototoilet’.Menusetheexpression‘toshootalion’.Adultsmaysay‘togotow.c.’.Andchildrensay‘togotothepot’.”[7]

2.5.2Differenceofprofessionoridentity

Euphemismchangeswhiletheprofessionandidentitychange.Thisisasynchronyvariation.Theword“die”canbeusedinmanydifferentways.“Inmilitary,peopleusetheexpression‘tolosenumberofone’smess’.ThisexpressionorientsfromthemesssystemofUKnavy.However,inthepress,peopleoftenusetheword‘thirty’becausetheyusuallymark‘30’intheendofanewsarticle,whichmeansending.”[8]

2.5.3Differenceofstyleorcontext

Stylistically,theword“die”hashundredsofeuphemisms.Butindailycommunication,peoplemayuse“tobegone”or“tobenomore”.Inobituary,peopleuse“topassaway”or“todepart”.Italsohassomewittyexpressions,forinstance,“topopoff”or“tokickthebucket”.

Euphemismisrestrictedbythecontext.Forexample,“Onthe14thofMarch,ataquartertothreeintheafternoon,thegreatestlivingthinkerceasedtothink.(F.Engels,SpeechattheGravesideofKarlMarx)”[9]Thisexampleinvolvesthepassingawayofagreatman.Andthephrase“ceasedtothink”echoes“thinker”.Thiseuphemismproducesagoodeffect.

3.Pragmaticfunctionsofeuphemism

3.1Taboofunction

“Tabooisthemainpsychologicalbasisoftheemergenceofeuphemism.Euphemismistheavoidanceoftheunpleasant,inelegantthings.AfamoussociolinguistMr.ChenYuanoncesaid:‘Generallyspeaking,thecomingintobeingofeuphemismallbeginsfromtaboo.’Fromtheoriginofeuphemism,wecanseethattabooisthefirstfunctionofeuphemism.Euphemismhasbeenusingforalongtime,anditiscloselyrelatedtotaboo.Infact,euphemismdatesbacktothelanguagetaboointheearlyperiodofhumancivilization.Whenpeopletrytoavoidandgiveuptaboowords,theyhavetofindanotherwordtoreplacethisvacancyatthesametime.Hence,peoplecreatedeuphemism.”[10]

Therearesometaboothings,suchasbirth,death,funeral,sex,nakedness,defecation,andurinate.Iftheyareexpresseddirectly,theyarecalledtaboowordsandthefeelingstheygiveusarevulgar,crudeandharsh,whereasiftheyareexpressedindirectly,theyarecalledeuphemism,andtheimpressionstheymadeonusareelegant,implicitandpolite.Theevadingfunctionofeuphemismalsoworkstoday.Sometaboonotionscannotbeeasilyremovedfrompeople’smind.

Thoughscienceandtechnologyarehighlydevelopedtoday,theword“death”isthetaboowordstoallnations.Thustherearealotofeuphemismsrelatedwithit.“Suchaspassaway,answerthefinalcall,beasleepinJesus,besafeinthearmsofJesus,beatrest,becalledtoGod,behomeandfree,beinAbraham’sbosom,crosstheRiverJordan,finalsleep,gohome,gotomeetone’smaker,gotoone’sownplace,joinone’sancestors,jointhegreatmajority,returntodust,withGod,benolongerwithus,paythedebtofnature,tickthebucket,etc.”[11]“Amongthose,‘one-way-ticket’isthesynonymof‘die’.Itreflectsthespeaker’sexperienceoflife.Lifeisjustliketravel.Peoplesetouttotravel,butwhentheyarrivetothetermination,theycannotgoback.Inthepast,peopleoftenusedgraveyardtoexpresstheplacewherethedeadsleeppeacefully.Buttheassociationsitgivesusarehorrifiedandgloomy.Sonow,peopleusefuneralhomeandmemorialparktoreplacethem.Insuchaway,itcomfortspeople.”[12]

3.2Politefunction

Politefunctionofeuphemismistoavoidinelegantthingsandmakepeoplefeelpleasant.AsJoannaChannellputinherbookVagueLanguage“Vaguenessisusedasonewayofadheringtothepolitenessrulesforaparticularculture,andofnotthreateningface.”[13]Itmeansthatinreallife,whenpeoplemeetwithsomeunpleasantthingsorbehaviors,theyusuallychoosesomevagueexpressionstoavoidmakingboldorhurtingother’sfeeling----touseeuphemism.

Itisharshtosaysomeoneisdeaf,sopeopleuse“auditory-impaired”toreplaceit.Theysoundmoregracefully.“WhenEnglish-speakersrefertotheappearance,theydon’tusetheword‘ugly’or‘awful’,whichhasstrongderogatorysense.Instead,theyusetheword‘plain-looking’or‘notpretty’.”[14]Westernersaresensitivetoage.Intheiropinion,“old”equalsto“useless”insomeextent.Inordernottohurtthefeelingandself-esteemoftheold,“oldmen”arereplacedby“seniorcitizens”or“seasonedmen”.Fortheword“senior”hasmanymeanings.Except“older”,italsomeanshigherinrankorauthority.Andtheword“seasoned”meansexperienced.“Followingaresomeeuphemismsaboutprofession.”[15]

Harshexpressioneuphemism

butcherMeattechnologist

ChimneyworkerChimneyconsultant

firemanFirefighter

GarbagemanSanitationengineer

hairdresserHairstylist

housekeeperHouseholdexecutive

Press-agentPublicrelationcounselor

PrisonguardCorrectionalofficer

3.3Coveringupfunction

InVaguenessLanguage,Channellstatedcoveringupfunctionasdeliberatelywithholdinginformation.Whatissocalled“coverup”means“notgivinginformationwhichthespeakerpossessesandwhichcouldbeappropriateinthesituation.”[16]

Westernpoliticallifegivesbirthtoeuphemism.Somepoliticiansandnewsmediashavemadegooduseofthevaguenessofeuphemismtocoverupthefactsofsomeeventsforthepurposeofmakingthepolitics,economy,andmilitarymoresteady.

Concealingthedarksideofsocietyistoalleviatethesocialcontradictionscausedbysex,violence,poverty,unemployment,andcrime.Therearesomeeuphemismsaboutsocialphenomena.“Venerealdisease”hasbeenbeautifiedas“socialdisease”.“Rape”,akindofcrime,ismentionedcasuallyas“interferewith”;“prostitutionbecameahigh-soundingprofession------‘theoldestprofessionintheworld’.”[17]Inpoliticians’view,violenceisakindofactionanddismissalisalso“layoff”.Peopledon’tneedtobesurprisedatthesephenomena.

Inwesterncountries,politicianscreatesomepoliticaleuphemismstoservetheirpoliticalgoals.Theytrytoconcealthefactsastoeasethetenserelationsbetweenothercountriesandreassureandpacifypublic’santi-waremotions.Forexample,InVietnamWar,Gulfwar,orIraqiwar,anumberofeuphemismsemergedtoglossoverthehorrorandcrueltyofwarandcontemptiblediplomaticmeans.

“Followingisachartaboutmilitaryeuphemisms.”[18]

HorrificexpressionEuphemism

airstrikeairoption

bombingandblastingsofteninguptheresistance

civiliancasualtiescollateraldamage

defensecrusheddefenseneutralized

groundwargroundoperation

invasionpre-emptiveaction

missileVehicle

nuclearbombnucleardevice

retreatstrategicwithdrawal

suicidalattackone-waymission

warheadpayload

Therearealsosomeeuphemismsabouteconomy.“Peopleuse‘depression’insteadof‘economiccrises’.Theword‘Striking’hasbeenbeautifiedas‘industrialaction’.”[19]andwhenpeoplementionedslum,theyoftenuse“substandardhousing”toreplaceit.

“Theeuphemismshereareinthetruesenseoftheword“false.”Theyareusedtocoverupthetruenatureofevents,deceivingthepublicwithnice-soundingandpseudotechnicalwords.”[20]

3.4Inducingfunction

Sometimes,peopleuseeuphemismtomaketheirstatementmorepersuasive.Thusthecosmeticwordshaveaspecialcommunicativefunction,whichiscalledinducingfunction.AsChannellhasanalyzedinthediscussionofthecommunicativefunctionsofvaguelanguagethat“Aspecificsettingwherespeakersmaywithholdinformationwhichtheyknowiswheretheyfeelthattheycanbemorepersuasivebydoingso.”[21]

Euphemismhasbeenwidelyappliedinadvertisementandsalespromotionactivities.Someairlinecompaniesdividedthegradesofpassengercompartmentsintofourranks.Theyused“deluxe”or“premiumclass”toreplace“firstclass”.Andthe“secondclass”istransformedinto“firstclass”.The“thirdclass”isrevisedas“businessclass”or“touristclass”.Theysoundmorepleasing.

Theroomsofhotelarealsocompartmentalizedinthesameway.Theycanbedividedasfirstclass,standardandprivate.Thosewordsaresweetsoundingandhavenothingtodowithcustomers’self-esteem.Also,“‘antiques’isthesubstitutionof‘second-handfurniture’.”[22]Inthemerchants’eye,theformerwillmakethepricehigher.Peopleoftenuse“compactcar”toreplace“smallcar”.Thoughtheirmeaningsarethesame,“small”willbeassociatedwithanimageofcheapandbadwhile“compact”emphasizestheimageofartistic,delicate,andterse.

Thoseeuphemismsdesalinatetheunpleasantfeelingthattheformerconceptsgiveusandintensifyafeelingofmorereliableandelegant.Asaresult,thoseproductswillbeidentifiedwiththeconsumersandachievedthepromotiongoal.“Fromthepragmaticview,theachievingofinducingfunctioniscausedbytheglorificationoftheintrinsicmeaning.”[23]

3.5Tacticalfunction

Ifasamemeaningisexpressedinmanydifferentways,theireffectsareentirelydifferent.Thisiswhatwecalledtheartofspeaking.Ifweapplythisstrategytoourdailylife,ourlifewillbemorecolorful.

Forexample,ontheplane,therearesomebagsthatcanbeusedbythepassengerstoshoothiscookies.Peopledon’tprintthewords“vomitbag”onthesurfaceofthebag.Instead,theyusethewords“formotiondiscomfort”.[24]Andtheresultprovedthatthevomitphenomenonhasreduced.Becausecomparedwiththeformerwords,theword“formotiondiscomfort”preventsthepassengersfromvomitingwheninastateofairsickness.Thisisthetacticalfunctionofeuphemism.

Bycontrary,ifweuseeuphemisminappropriately,theresultwouldbeworse.Trytocomparethefollowingtwostatements:

(9)Iamanoldcripple,drawinganold-agepension,workinghardtoraisevastquantitiesofvegetablesonanallotmentandwellawarethat,oneofthesedays,Ishalldie.

(10)If,however,Ilistentothevoiceofofficialdom,itturnsoutthatIamadisadvantagedseniorcitizen,registeredasdisabled,drawingaretirementpension,rentingaleisuregardenand,presumably,immortalbecauseIshallneverdie---Ishallmerelypassaway.

Wecanseethatinthefirststatement,theauthortalksdirectlyabouthislifestatus.Thesecondstatementisthatthegovernmentofficialsmakeasurveyofthehardshipofcitizens.Theytrytocoverthefactsbyusingeuphemisms.

3.6Humorfunction

Joculareuphemismhasbeenusedtohelppeoplefacethefactmoreeasily.Forexample,peopleuse“pushupdaisies”totakeplaceof“beburied”becausetheformerwordscanreducepeople’shorrortowardsdeath.And“besentintoprison”isreplacedby“liveatgovernment’sexpense”.Thisexpressioniswitty.Anotherexample,“afterthreedaysinJapan,thespinalcolumnbecomesextraordinarilyflexible.”ItsimplicatureisthatinJapan,peopleareverypolite.Theyusuallybowmanytimesadaytogreetsomeone.

4.Euphemismandpoliteness

4.1Euphemismandinterpersonalcommunication

Euphemismhasbeenwidelyusedintherealhumancommunication.Itcanberegardedasakindofpoliteterms.Inprimitiveandtraditionalsociety,tabooandeuphemismarethetwosidesofacoin.Theyareusedforsocialcontrolandreligiouscontrol.AndinmodernEnglish,thereareanumberofwordsconnectedwithholy,sex,bodyorganandbodyfunction.Sowhenpeople’stopicreferstothose,theyhavetofindeuphemismstoreplacethem.Theyoftenusesomevaguelanguagetoavoidmentioningthemdirectly.

4.2Politenessandface-threateningtheory

Themainfunctionofeuphemismispolitefunction.Thus,themaincharacterofeuphemismispolite.Politenessplaysanimportantroleinhumancommunication.Itoilshumanrelationships.Soeuphemismaccordswithpolitenesswillacceleratehumancommunication.

4.2.1Thedefinitionandfeaturesofpoliteness

“Weviewpolitenessasoneofthemajorsocialconstrainsonhumaninteractionwhichregulatesparticipants’communicativebehaviorbyconstantlyremindingthemtotakeintoconsiderationthefeelingsoftheothers.Itisnecessarytoconsidertheirfeelingssoastoestablishlevelsofmutualcomfortandpromoterapport,whichinturnaccelerateandfacilitatehumancommunication.”[25]Thefinalgoalofpolitenessistomakeallofthepartiesrelaxedandcomfortablewithoneanother.

Therearetwokindsofpoliteness:oneisnegativepoliteness;theotherispositivepoliteness.Negativepolitenessistomakealessinfringingrequest,suchas"Ifyoudon''''tmind..."or"Ifitisn''''ttoomuchtrouble..."orrespectsaperson''''srighttoactfreely.Inotherwords,it’sdeference.Positivepolitenessistoseektoestablishapositiverelationshipbetweenpartiesandrespectsaperson''''sneedtobelikedandunderstood.

4.2.2Face-threateningtheory

Faceisdefinedasanindividual’sself-esteem.“BasedonthefacenotionofGoffmanthat“face”isasacredthingforeveryhumanbeing,anessentialfactorcommunicatorshavetopayattentionto,andthatfacewantsarereciprocal(ifonewantshisfacecaredfor,heshouldcareforotherpeople’sface).”[26]AccordingtoBrownandLevinson,nearlyallspeechactsareface-threateningacts.Therearetwokindsofface:oneisPositiveFace;theotherisNegativeFace.

“PositiveFacereferstoourneedtobeacceptedandlikedbyothersandourneedtofeelthatoursocialgroupsharescommongoals.PositivePolitenessorientstopreservingthepositivefaceofotherpeople.Whenweusepositivepolitenessweusespeechstrategiesthatemphasizeoursolidaritywiththehearer,suchasinformationpronunciation,shareddialectorslangexpressions,nicknames,morefrequentreferencetospeakerandheareras“we”,andrequestswhicharelessindirect.

NegativeFacereferstoourrighttoindependenceofactionandourneednottobeimposedonbyothers.NegativePolitenessorientstopreservingthenegativefaceofotherpeople.Thisismuchmorelikelyifthereisasocialdistancebetweenthespeakerandthehearer.Whenweusenegativepoliteness,weusespeechstrategiesthatemphasizeourdeferenceforthehearer.Nicknames,slangandinformalpronunciationtendtobeavoidedandrequeststendtobemoreindirectandimpersonal,ofteninvolvingcouldyou…orcouldIaskyouto…orevenreferringtothehearerinthethirdperson.”[27]

4.2.3Therelationshipbetweenpolitenessandfacewant

Facereferstoourpublicself-image.Politenessinvolvesusshowinganawarenessofotherpeople’sfacewant.Inourinterpersonalcommunication,weshouldpayattentiontoother’sfacewant.Inthefieldofeducation,teacherhastodealwiththerelationswiththestudents.Therearesomeeuphemismsabouteducation.Forexample,ifastudentislazy,wedon’tcallhim“lazystudent”.Instead,wecallhim“underachiever”.Ifastudentcheatsinclass,weregarditthathedependsonotherstodohiswork.“Andifastudentisquarter-wittedandheusuallygetsalowmarkintheexams,wedon’tcallhimstupid.Sowhentheteachertalkswiththechild’sparents,theteacherwouldsay:‘Yourchildisabitslowforhisage.’”[28]Hesaysthefactinaroundaboutwaysoitwillnothurttheparents’andthechild’sself-esteem.Itisaface-savingstrategy.

Inshort,inpeople’sdailycommunication,theyhavetobepolitetosaveeachother’sfaceandmaketheirrelationsmoreharmoniously.Theycanachievethisgoalbyusingeuphemismsbecausetheyaresweet-sounding.Andthisisthepolitefunctionofeuphemism.

5.EuphemismandPolitenessPrinciple

Fromtheabove,weknowthateuphemismhassomethingtodowithpoliteness.WecanassociatepolitenesswithPolitenessPrinciple.

5.1Leech’spolitenessprinciple

“Generallyspeaking,mostoftheeuphemismsaccordwithconversationalprinciple,especiallypolitenessprinciple.Leech’s(1983:132)maximsofthePolitenessPrincipletendtogoinpairsasfollows:

(1)TactMaxim(inimpositivesandcommissives)

a.Minimizecosttoother;

b.Maximizebenefittoother.

Someexamples:a、Ifyoukeepthisdiet,you’llbeontheheavyside.

(c.f.:Ifyoukeeponeatingtoomuch,you’llbecomeveryfat.)

b、Thankyouforyourkindhospitality.

(c.f.:Thankyouforyourdeliciousfood.)

(2)GenerosityMaxim(inimpositivesandcommissives)

a.Minimizebenefittoself;

b.Maximizecosttoself.

Someexamples:a、Wouldyoudomeafavor?

(c.f.:Canyouhelpme?)

b、Ishallneverceasetofeelgratefulforyourfavors.

(c.f.:Ishallneverceasetofeelgratefulforyourhelp.)

(3)ApprobationMaxim(inexpressivesandassertives)

a.Minimizedispraiseofother;

b.Maximizepraiseofother.

Someexamples:a、Heisaseniorcitizennow.

(c.f.:Heisanoldmannow.)

b、CaoYuisaShakespeareofChina.

(c.f.:CaoYuisthebestplaywrightofChina.)

(4)ModestyMaxim(inexpressivesandassertives)

a.Minimizepraiseofself;

b.Maximizedispraiseofself.

Someexamples:a、Thisisatokenofmyregardforyou.

(c.f.:Thisisapresentforyou.)

b、Yourpraiseisthehighesthonorforme.

(c.f.:Thankyouforyourpraise.)

(5)AgreementMaxim(inassertives)

a.Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother;

b.Maximizeagreementbetweenselfandother.

Someexamples:a、Icouldn’tsharethesameideawithyou.

(c.f.:Idon’tagreewithyou.)

b、Ifyouwereinmyposition,youwoulddothesame.

(c.f.:Ihavetodoso.)

(6)SympathyMaxim(inassertives)

a.Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandother;

b.Maximizesympathybetweenselfandother.”[29]

Someexamples:a、IamsorrytohearthatyourfatherrestedinAbraham’sarms.

(c.f.:Iamsorrytohearthatyourfatherisdead.)

b、IfIwereyou,Iwouldhavetakenarouteofegressasyoudid.

(c.f.:IfIhadbeeninyourposition,Iwouldhavebeendefeatedbythemightyenemy,too.)

Leechtiespolitenesstotherelationshipbetweenbothpartiesandthelanguageused.Heclaimsthat“static”feature,suchassocialdistance,interactwith“dynamic”features,suchasthekindofillocutionarydemandthespeakerismakingonthemaker,toproduceanappropriatedegreeofpoliteness.Thecoreofhispolitenessistominimizetheexpressionofimpolitebenefits.

5.2PolitefunctionandPolitenessPrinciple

Politefunctionisthebasicsocialfunctionofeuphemism.AndPolitenessPrincipleshowsthisfunction.EuphemismalwaysabidesbythePolitenessPrinciple.Insuchacase,euphemismcanmakepeople’srelationshipmoreharmonious.Buttherearealsosomeexceptions.EuphemismsofmilitarydonotaccordwithPolitenessprinciplemostofthetime.

5.3PolitenessPrincipleandthecooperativePrinciple

ThePolitenessPrincipleshowsequalandfriendlyrelationshipsbetweenpeopleinthesociety.Itdemandsthatincommunication,thespeakershouldcooperatewiththehearer.Thetwopartiesuseeuphemismstoreplaceharshwordsbecauseitcanmeetthepsychologicalneedsofface-want.Andthelanguageusedbythetwopartiesshouldbeappropriate.Generallyspeaking,theappropriatenessofthespeechiscloselyrelatedwitheuphemism.However,“TheMaximofRelevance”ofGrice’s“CooperativePrinciple”limitsthechoiceofeuphemism.Hesuggeststhatincommunication,thereplyofthehearershouldbecloselyrelatedtothespeechofthespeaker.Intheprocessofcommunication,theeuphemismsusedjustnowshouldbeconnectedwiththeprimarylanguagesymbols.Insuchcase,itwillprovideacluetothehearersothathecanunderstandtheconnotationofthespeech.Thisprincipleprovidesalotofstandardconversationalimplicatures.Inaword,thetwopartiescanunderstandtheintentionofeachotherfromthecontext.

(11)A:HowisJohndoingwithhisstudyatschool?

B:He’samachine.

Here,fromtheliteralmeaningofB''''sreply,heseemshaven’tanswerA’squestion.Butatleast,hisanswerviolatesQualityMaximandRelationMaxim.WeknowthatthoughB’sanswerdoesn’tcooperatewithA’squestion,wecanstillunderstandB’smeaningbythedeeperimplicationofhisspeech.First,weshouldsupposethatthisconversationtallywithCooperativePrinciple.Second,wecanguesstheimplicationbetweenmachineandstudy.Atlast,wecaninferthatJohnishard-working.Thus,iftheutteranceisnotrelevantwitheachother,wecanreason.“Unlikepresuppositionsandentailments,implicaturesareinferencesthatcannotbemadefromisolatedutterances.Theyaredependentonthecontextoftheutteranceandthesharedknowledgebetweenthespeakerandthehearer.”[30]

6.Conclusion

Euphemismisanappropriatelanguageformcreatedbypeopletoachieveanidealcommunicativeeffectinthesocialinteractions.“EnrighrD.J.statedthat‘Ifeuphemismdoesn’texist,themovementoftheworldwillstopanditwillbefilledwithhatred.’”[31]Nearlynoonecanlivewithouteuphemism.

Euphemismisnotonlyasocialphenomenon,butalsoalingualphenomenon.Theformationofeuphemismistheresultofsocialfactorsandpsychologicalfactors.Fromthedayofitsbirth,therearecountlesstiesbetweeneuphemismandthesocialculture.Euphemismdevelopswhilethesocietydevelops.Euphemismisamirror.Wecanlearnthevaluesandmoralconceptsofthesociety.EuphemismthataccordswithPolitenessPrincipleoilshumancommunicationbecausepolitefunctionisthemainfunctionofPolitenessprinciple.Ifwemakegooduseofthislanguageform,itwillaccelerateandfacilitatehumancommunication.People’sinterpersonalrelationswillbemoreharmonious.Wecanmakefulluseofeuphemismandmakeourlifemorecolorful.

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